Quick Answer: Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in 19th and 20th century Europe, centered on the idea that humans have no predetermined essence or purpose. Instead, each person creates their own meaning through free choices and actions. Its most famous principle, “existence precedes essence,” comes from Jean-Paul Sartre.
Existentialism is less a unified system than a shared concern. The thinkers labeled existentialists disagreed with each other constantly, and several of them rejected the label entirely. What united them was a conviction that abstract philosophical systems fail to capture what it actually feels like to be a living, choosing, anxious human being.
Understanding existentialism requires moving past textbook summaries and engaging with its central questions: What does it mean to exist? How should I live when there is no guaranteed meaning? What does authenticity look like in a world of conformity? These questions give the movement its enduring power, long after its mid-20th-century peak.
What Does Existentialism Mean?
At its core, existentialism is a philosophical approach that places the concrete individual at the center of thought. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes it as a general name for thinkers who “made the concrete individual central to their thought,” arising as a backlash against philosophical and scientific systems that treat humans as mere instances of universal laws .
The movement holds that human existence cannot be adequately grasped through detached, objective theorizing. Instead, existentialists begin with a detailed description of the self as an “existing individual”—an agent embedded in a specific social and historical world . Their shared aim is to understand how a person can achieve the richest and most fulfilling life in the modern world.
Pronunciation
English: /ˌeɡ.zɪˈsten.ʃəl.ɪ.zəm/ (eg-zih-STEN-shuh-lih-zum)
Word Origin
The term “existentialism” was popularized in the 1940s, largely through the work of Jean-Paul Sartre. However, the philosophical themes it describes predate the word by nearly a century. Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, writing in the 19th century, laid the groundwork for what later became known as existentialism .
The Core Principle: Existence Precedes Essence
The most famous phrase in existentialist vocabulary is Sartre’s declaration that “existence precedes essence” . This principle is the key to understanding the entire movement.
For most of Western philosophical history, essence came first. A thing’s essence was its defining nature—the qualities that made it what it was. For humans, this meant there was a fixed “human nature” or a divine plan that defined what a person was supposed to be. Existentialism reverses this order.
According to Sartre, humans first simply exist—we find ourselves born into a world not of our own choosing. Only afterward do we define our own identity through what we do. As the Routledge Encyclopedia explains, “our essence (our set of defining traits) is chosen, not given” . There is no pre-written script for a human life. We write it ourselves, moment by moment, through our choices.
Why This Matters
This principle has profound implications. If there is no fixed human nature, then there is no excuse. A person cannot say, “I was born this way” or “It is simply my nature” to justify their actions. Existentialists argue that we are radically free and therefore fully responsible for what we make of our lives . This freedom is exhilarating, but it is also the source of what existentialists call “anguish” or “anxiety”—the vertigo of realizing that nothing determines our choices except ourselves.
Freedom, Responsibility, and Authenticity
Existentialists hold that people decide their own fates and are responsible for what they make of their lives. Even when social and biological factors influence our decisions, we can reflect on those conditions, decide what they mean, and choose how to respond . We are self-creating beings.
From this freedom follows the concept of authenticity, perhaps the movement’s central ethical ideal. Most people, existentialists observe, live what Heidegger called the “they-self”—conforming to what “one” does in familiar social situations . We do what is expected, follow the crowd, and let public opinion dictate our choices. Such a life is described as inauthentic—not truly our own.
To become authentic, an individual must take ownership of their existence with clarity and intensity. This transformation is often triggered by profound emotional experiences: anxiety, dread, or the awareness of death. When we confront these limit situations honestly, existentialists claim, we gain a clearer grasp of what is at stake in life and become more committed, integrated individuals .
Key Existentialist Thinkers
No single thinker defines existentialism. The movement’s richness comes from the diversity of its major figures.
| Thinker | Era | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Søren Kierkegaard | 19th century | “Father of modern existentialism”; focused on the single individual and subjective truth |
| Friedrich Nietzsche | 19th century | Diagnosed nihilism after the “death of God”; critiqued herd morality |
| Martin Heidegger | 20th century | Analyzed “Being-in-the-world” and authenticity in Being and Time (1927) |
| Jean-Paul Sartre | 20th century | Popularized the term; formulated “existence precedes essence” |
| Simone de Beauvoir | 20th century | Applied existentialist ethics to gender and freedom |
| Albert Camus | 20th century | Explored the absurd, though he rejected the existentialist label |
Kierkegaard and the Single Individual
Kierkegaard developed his ideas in the context of Christian faith, arguing that the individual’s relationship with God cannot be reduced to universal ethical rules. His concept of “subjective truth”—the idea that what matters is how one holds a belief, not just its objective content—prefigured the existential emphasis on personal commitment .
Nietzsche and Nihilism
Nietzsche confronted the collapse of traditional religious and moral frameworks. With the “death of God,” modern humanity found itself adrift, without an overarching reason or purpose to existence. Nietzsche’s response was not despair but a call to create new values—to become who one is through self-overcoming .
Heidegger and Being-in-the-World
Heidegger’s Being and Time introduced most of the motifs that would characterize existentialist thought: the tension between the individual and the “public,” the emphasis on our “situated” character, the fascination with anxiety and death, and the norm of authenticity . Though Heidegger later repudiated the existentialist label, his influence on Sartre and others was decisive.
Existentialism Across Contexts
Existentialism was never confined to academic philosophy. Many of its major figures wrote plays, novels, and political tracts alongside their philosophical treatises . Sartre’s novels and plays, Camus’s fiction, and de Beauvoir’s memoirs brought existentialist ideas to a broad public.
The Historical Context
Existentialism arose amid profound social transformation. The rise of modern science, the Protestant Reformation, the Industrial Revolution, and the formation of bureaucratic states all contributed to a sense of alienation and meaninglessness . Traditional communities dissolved; individuals found themselves isolated in mass society. Existentialism offered a vocabulary for this experience—”the public,” “the herd,” “the They”—and a response: the call to authentic existence.
Religious vs. Atheist Existentialism
The movement spans both religious and secular thinkers. Kierkegaard, Jaspers, Marcel, and Buber explored existential themes within a religious framework. Sartre, Beauvoir, and Camus were resolutely atheist . This divide shows that existentialism is not a doctrine about God but a method of grappling with the human condition.
How to Use “Existentialism” Correctly
As a Philosophical Term
Use existentialism to refer to the broad movement encompassing Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, and others. When referring specifically to Sartre’s version, clarify: “Sartrean existentialism” or “French existentialism.”
In Everyday Conversation
People sometimes use “existential” casually to mean “deeply meaningful” or “related to existence.” An “existential crisis” describes a moment of doubt about life’s meaning. This popular usage is looser than the philosophical term but shares its concern with fundamental questions.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
- Do not treat existentialism as a single unified doctrine. Its thinkers disagreed profoundly, and several rejected the label. Treat it as a family of related concerns rather than a fixed system.
- Do not confuse existentialism with nihilism. While existentialists confront meaninglessness, most argue that meaning can be created through choice and commitment. Nihilism denies meaning altogether; existentialism responds to its absence.
- Do not reduce it to “existence precedes essence.” This phrase is important, but it is only one element of a complex movement.
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the simple definition of existentialism?
Existentialism is a philosophical movement holding that humans have no predetermined essence or purpose. Instead, each person creates their own identity and meaning through free choices and actions.
2. What does “existence precedes essence” mean?
It means that humans first exist—we are born into a world not of our choosing—and only afterward define who we are through our actions. There is no fixed human nature or divine plan that determines our identity in advance .
3. Who is the founder of existentialism?
No single founder exists. Søren Kierkegaard is often called the “father of modern existentialism,” but the movement developed through multiple thinkers including Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, and de Beauvoir .
4. Is existentialism religious or atheist?
It can be both. Kierkegaard and Jaspers wrote from religious perspectives; Sartre and Camus were atheists. Existentialism is a method of inquiry, not a fixed position on God .
5. What is an existential crisis?
An existential crisis is a period of intense doubt about the meaning, purpose, or value of one’s existence. It often arises when familiar sources of meaning—work, relationships, beliefs—lose their coherence.
6. Why is existentialism still relevant today?
Existentialism addresses questions that do not disappear: How do I live authentically? What do I do with my freedom? How do I face death and anxiety? In an era of rapid change and widespread uncertainty, its vocabulary of choice, responsibility, and authenticity remains useful.
Conclusion
Existentialism is a philosophy of radical freedom and radical responsibility. It begins with the individual—not as an abstract rational agent but as a concrete, anxious, choosing being embedded in a particular time and place. Its central insight, that existence precedes essence, means that no one can hand you the meaning of your life. You must create it yourself.
The movement’s major figures disagreed about almost everything else: God, ethics, politics, method. But they shared a refusal to let abstract systems obscure the urgency of lived experience. Whether you encounter existentialism in Sartre’s novels, Heidegger’s dense prose, or the everyday phrase “existential crisis,” the questions it raises remain stubbornly alive.
